Abstract
The present PhD thesis systematically investigates the organization and operation of Byzantine hospitals and charitable institutions, which were designed and operated specifically for the treatment of the 'sick'. In particular, however, it describes the aspect of ecclesiastical charity, which, inextricably linked to the constitutional theory, was a fundamental factor in the establishment of hospitals. The entire research was based exclusively on the empirical material of the sources: texts of Byzantine physicians, imperial legislation, texts of electoral fathers and writers, Byzantine historians and historiographers, buildings of holy monasteries, hagiological texts, inscriptions. In addition, the relevant literature for the investigation of specific issues. From these texts we have drawn important information on the way Byzantine hospitals were organized or functioned. The data obtained from the above sources have made it clear that the 'Xenones' (Byzantine hospitals) were established ...
The present PhD thesis systematically investigates the organization and operation of Byzantine hospitals and charitable institutions, which were designed and operated specifically for the treatment of the 'sick'. In particular, however, it describes the aspect of ecclesiastical charity, which, inextricably linked to the constitutional theory, was a fundamental factor in the establishment of hospitals. The entire research was based exclusively on the empirical material of the sources: texts of Byzantine physicians, imperial legislation, texts of electoral fathers and writers, Byzantine historians and historiographers, buildings of holy monasteries, hagiological texts, inscriptions. In addition, the relevant literature for the investigation of specific issues. From these texts we have drawn important information on the way Byzantine hospitals were organized or functioned. The data obtained from the above sources have made it clear that the 'Xenones' (Byzantine hospitals) were established exclusively for the systematic care and treatment of the 'sick' as early as the fourth century and, as centres of charity, continued to provide medical services until the fall of the Empire (eleventh century). In this sense, they were also the main place where medicine was practised, providing specialised treatment for hospital patients and outpatient treatment for the general population. It should also be pointed out that throughout this period medical schools were also operating in the 'hostels', where medical theory and clinical practice were taught to those wishing to become doctors. Testimonies are provided from as early as the fourth century up to the fifteenth. We mention characteristically Gregory the Theologian's 'Epitaph speech' about Basil the Great, his 'speech on philoptochia' and the buildings of the holy monasteries. The Byzantine 'Xenones' do not, of course, bear any particular resemblance to the 'Hospitals' of pre-industrial society, which are 'houses of mercy' (asylums) inadequately equipped with the main concern being the relief of the sick and the provision of medical care being inadequate. Despite this fundamental difference, as early as the Enlightenment, historians concerned with 'Byzantium' have not only disdained or even ignored the achievements of Byzantine charitable institutions, but also underestimated the fundamental ecclesiastical conditions which facilitated their organization and operation. Most of them objected to the evidence concerning the 'Xenon' of the Monastery of Pantokrator (twelfth century), arguing that the society of the twelfth century did not have the conditions to organize medical care with hospitals as its fundamental axis.This paper describes in detail the spiritual and constitutional conditions, which resulted from the inseparable coupling of ecclesiastical and imperial power for the establishment and operation of hospitals. The affinity, the 'parallelism' of these two authorities or 'powers' was expressed in practice as early as the fourth century with the establishment, organisation and operation of nursing institutions. The model of establishment and operation is described in the 'epitaph' of Gregory The principles are summarised in the same period in his 'discourse on philoptochia', and also in the peculiar constitutional theory of the 'philanthropy' of the emperor and the 'parallelism' of the two constitutive principles of life: the church and the empire. In this light, the 'charitable' nursing institutions of the 4th - 12th centuries are described; the role of monasticism is examined in particular and a brief reference is made to the concept of 'building' monastic Types. Subsequently, a detailed description is given on the basis of the Typikon:- the terms and purpose of the humanist functions of the complex.- the organisation and operation of the hospital.- the 'lavomobile'.- the treatment of the 'sick'.- their diet.- the composition and responsibilities of the medical and administrative staff.- their remuneration and the costs of the complex. The research and systematic analysis of the information of the empirical material of the sources showed that the "Hostels" and the hospital of the monastery of Pantokrator are characterized by a complexity of organization but at the same time by a surprising ease of operation. In particular, the hospital complex was founded and operated to meet the needs of man. Very roughly the text of the founding document of the monastery summarises the objectives of the operation of the 'hospices' and the hospital complex:- "coffinization" of pains.- "cure of pains".- "the cure of illnesses".- "tale" of the needy.- care for the "afflicted with age, pain and sorrow, and crushed by poverty".- "due diligence" to all comers. The whole organization and operation of the hospital complex recalls Gregory of Nazianzen's well-known observation about the Basilica of the Basilica of St. Basil, which runs through all ecclesiastical nursing medical care: "Intensely disease is philosophized and symphora is blessed and the sympathetic is tested".
show more
