Abstract
The aim of the current PhD thesis is the determination of the atmospheric concentrations of radioactive isotopes and trace elements in air filter samples collected from the Helsinki metropolitan area, in Finland from 1962 to 2005.16070 daily aerosol samples (Whatman GF/A, 3500 m^-3 d^-1) were collected in FMI facilities, in order to monitoring natural radioactivity. Simultaneously, 608 weekly aerosol samples of air filters were collected by means of an aerosol beta radioactivity monitoring system, for the determination of trace elements in the atmosphere. Based on such a large set of data and by studying the elemental and radioactive concentrations (especially of 210Pb) in aerosol filters collected in the capital of Finland, the evaluation of the influence of different pollutants with anthropogenic origin on the atmosphere and generally on the environment can be achieved. For that reason, the extent to which information concerning the specific activity (210Pb/Pb) of lead can help in un ...
The aim of the current PhD thesis is the determination of the atmospheric concentrations of radioactive isotopes and trace elements in air filter samples collected from the Helsinki metropolitan area, in Finland from 1962 to 2005.16070 daily aerosol samples (Whatman GF/A, 3500 m^-3 d^-1) were collected in FMI facilities, in order to monitoring natural radioactivity. Simultaneously, 608 weekly aerosol samples of air filters were collected by means of an aerosol beta radioactivity monitoring system, for the determination of trace elements in the atmosphere. Based on such a large set of data and by studying the elemental and radioactive concentrations (especially of 210Pb) in aerosol filters collected in the capital of Finland, the evaluation of the influence of different pollutants with anthropogenic origin on the atmosphere and generally on the environment can be achieved. For that reason, the extent to which information concerning the specific activity (210Pb/Pb) of lead can help in understanding the sources, dispersion and accumulation of lead in the environment was examined. Air pollution is a complex problem that affects health, environment and climate. Since the 1960s, a routine monitoring data system located in the Helsinki metropolitan area has provided valuable information about radioactive isotopes and trace elements in aerosols particles, their emission sources and their flying paths before their deposition to ecosystems. The study of these concentrations of a 44-year time series can give details about the factors that affect their concentrations, any seasonal variations and how reduced emission after the national and EU regulations have affected the concentration trends of different elements at this central location. Finland is a Northern European country and is characterized by a continental and cold climate. The capital of Helsinki and its surrounding area situated on a coastal region by the Baltic Sea at 60,2º latitude. The metropolitan area of Helsinki consists of four cities Helsinki, Espoo, Vantaa and Kauniainen. The current survey focuses only on the Helsinki city and specifically on the Finnish Meteorological Institute (FMI) facilities, where daily and weekly aerosol samples were collected from. More specifically, during the period 1962 – 1966 an aerosol’s sampling system was operated in the district of Sörnäinen (60º11’N, 24º57’E), while from 1967 to 2005 the aerosol samples were collected from the roof of the FMI’s main building in the district of Kaisaniemi (60º10’N, 24º57’E). In both cases, an aerosol beta radioactivity monitoring system with Whatman 42 paper filters was used. Additionally, for the analysis of radionuclides concentrations, an automatic sample changer-analyzer, developed in FMI, was employed. This analyzer could handle 20 large-area filters with one loading, making the absolute counting of short-lived 222Rn progeny possible just by using the beta/alpha pseudo-coincidence technique. After sampling, weekly air filters were carefully stored in the FMI building and they were currently analyzed by means of a high-resolution energy dispersive X-Ray fluorescence spectrometer with 3-D optics and secondary targets (PANalytical Epsilon 5) at the Institute of Nuclear and Radiological Sciences and Technology, Energy and Safety, N.C.S.R. ‘’Demokritos’’, in Athens, Greece. The concentrations of 17 elements (Na, Al, Si, S, Cl, K, Ca, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, Br, Pb) were determined. The majority of the elements present a declining trend over the years. On a percentage basis, 210Pb and trace elements concentrations have been greatly decreased. The lowest decrease concerns the elements Cu, Br and Cl while the highest one has been observed for Pb element (Na: 74%, Al: 86%, Si: 88%, S: 82%, Cl: 22%, K: 82%, Ca: 89%, Ti: 80%, V: 89%, Cr: 82%, Mn: 77%, Fe: 77%, Ni: 61%, Cu: 37%, Zn: 72%, Br: 32%, Pb: 95%, and 210Pb: 51.6%).The trace element concentrations follow the bellow order (from lower to higher ones) during a 40-yeartime series: Cr<Ni<Ti<Br<V<Mn<Cu<Zn<Cl<Al<Fe<K<Ca<Na<Pb<Si<S. It is noteworthy that most of the elements show lower concentrations since 1980, which coincides with the application of the first regulations for controlling and reducing air pollution. Most of the elements (Fe, Si, Ti, K, Ca, Zn, Br, Pb, V, Ni, S, Cr, Na, Al, and Cl) present higher values during spring and winter season, while in summer the elements (Ti, Ca, S, and Na) are found in higher concentrations due to the weather conditions across seasons and the sources and emissions of air pollutants. There is a strong correlation between the elements (V-Ni, Si-Pb, Fe-Ca, V-Cr, Si-K, K-Ca, Fe-Ti, K-Na, Si-Ca, and V-S), indicating their common source. The identification of the sources of trace elements was performed based on Positive Matrix Factorization Analysis, using SoFi software. Four Suspended Particulate Matter (PM) sources were identified: road dust (due to the usage of leaded fuel), heavy oil combustion/secondary sulfates, traffic emissions, and natural dust (soil). For the total of 44 years studied, significant decreases in concentrations were observed for all elements, most of which were over 50%: Na(-74%), Al(-86%), Si(-88%), S(-82%), K(-82%), Ca(-89%), Ti(-80%), V(-89%), Cr(-82%), Mn(-77%), Fe(-77%), Ni(-61%), Zn(-72%), and Pb(-95%). In general, a significant decline has been observed in the majority of the elemental concentrations since the end of the 1970s, underlying the effectiveness of different environmental policies that have been applied during the last few decades. Pb was studied simultaneously with the 210Pb concentrations to identify the effects of anthropogenic activities. Most of the stable lead in the human environment is of technological origin. Pb extracted from mines has very low 210Pb content. A major portion of atmospheric lead pollution originates from the burning of lead gasoline. Pb concentrations have been decreased since 1970s and this is strongly correlated with lead smelters north of Helsinki, on-site incinerators, lead gasoline and fuel combustion. The ratio of 210Pb/Pb, which shows the amount of radioactive isotope in elemental lead, has been steeply increasing since 1980.Seasonal differences can cause significant changes in elemental concentrations. In the first two decades, fluctuations in Pb concentrations are intense, with the highest values occurring mainly in winter and autumn seasons. In winter the emissions from energy production are at their seasonal maximum and most of the elements presented higher concentrations during spring and winter period. On the other hand, 210Pb concentrations showed greater fluctuations over the years, with the maximum values also appearing in the cold season, such as Pb. Also, in winter the lower troposphere becomes stratified in the absence of solar heating causing convective air flows. Thus, emitted air pollutants stay close to the ground and are not diluted upwards in the atmosphere. To understand the spatial origins and potential sources of pollutants, the Potential Source Contribution Function (PSCF) analysis was applied, which calculates the probability for each possible source area of pollutants, based on the frequency of high concentrations. From the trajectory analysis, it emerged that Finland is an area directly affected by transboundary pollution, mainly from air masses originating from its eastern border (air masses originating from Russia), but also from areas of Northern Europe. In these areas of origin there is intense industrial activity and energy production installations, and as a result the air masses coming from there are enriched with several pollutants, which contain both trace elements and radioactive isotopes. Wind-borne soil particles, volcanoes, biogenic sources, wild forest fires and sea salt spray are the principal natural sources of trace elements. Cr, Mn, Ni and V are emitted to the atmosphere due to fossil fuel combustion. Long-range transport of air pollutants to Finland does occur. Various sources are responsible for the above elements, including natural and anthropogenic ones. Some elements are tightly connected to the soil-derived dust such as Cr, Mn, Pb, V, Fe, Al, Si and Zn, and their distribution is favored by the dry conditions during the warm season. Also, the city of Helsinki is burdened by local pollution, with the main percentage coming from vehicle traffic. In earlier years, this pollution factor was increased due to the use of fuels containing high concentrations of lead (Pb). In the following years, with the decrease in the use of leaded gasoline, this factor decreased, but at the same time there is an increase in the number of moving vehicles. The latter implies an increase in the concentrations of various trace elements related to the friction of vehicle tires on the ground, the use of materials in vehicle brakes, and others. Surveys have been carried out in Finland, Sweden, Norway and Russia, with Pb being the element with the most important reduction. This indicates the severity and effectiveness of the regulations and measurements taken by the European Union since the 1970s.Air pollution has serious effects on human health and the environment, so it is important to record radioactive isotopes and trace elements levels and implement new regulations to reduce them. This thesis is an attempt to develop this effort and motivate further research.
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